Deep similarities: A contrastive analysis of two research papers

Deep similarities: A contrastive analysis of two research papers

Introduction to structural analysis

In the first research article presented for analysis Gimbel, Lopes, and Nolan Greer (2011) investigate about ¨ the teacher and principal perceptions of the role of the principal in fostering teachers’ professional growth¨ (para.1). Similarly, in his research publication Smith Anderson-Bill (2011) analyses ¨ the demographic, behavioral, and psychosocial characteristics of Web-health users recruited for an online social cognitive theory (SCT)-based nutrition, physical activity, and weight gain prevention intervention, the Web-based Guide to Health (WB-GTH) (para.1).  At first sight, these two articles seem to share no similarities since the former research is based on the field of education while the later is based on the field of medicine.  However, if the comparison goes beyond fields of studies and content, the similarities clearly override the differences.  For the purpose of this comparative study, a structural analysis will be carried about in order to expose the similarities between the two research articles.  For the aforementioned analysis, three sections - namely introduction, literature review and method - will be compared in terms of text structure and grammar with appropriate exemplifications from the texts.

Established standards in introductions

Apart from presenting the topic of analysis, the introduction is the crucial moment to gain a potential reader by attracting their attention since it is at the beginning of the reading process that the attention span is at the highest level.  This characteristic is favored by a rhetorical organization of the information provided by what Swales and Feak (1994) name the “Create a Research Space Model (C.A.R.S)” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.27).  Different genres unfold into different patterns of informational organization.  The parts of a genre are organized in a pre-established fashion. In the case of introductions, the three moves they contain are arranged following the general-particular pattern.  While the first move is characterized by the creation of an area for research, the second move establishes a deficiency to be later solved in the third move (Swales & Feak, 1994; cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010).  Swales and Feak (1994) further explain that in order to arrive at the specific final information (move 3) - for example, the statement of a thesis - it is necessary to previously analyze the available information ( move 1 ) on the topic to be dealt with to later state what aspects/states of the topic trigger the present research ( move 2) (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010).

C.A.R.S. model in the fields of education and medicine

In their research paper, Gimbel, Lopes and Nolan Greer (2011) structure the information following the three moves of the C.A.R.S model.  The research territory is established in the first two paragraphs of the introduction section.  This is, in turn, followed by a short statement (paragraph three) of a gap existing in the literature reviewed.  Finally, the purposes of the study are stated and some important findings are announced.  Smith Anderson-Bill (2011) also structures the text according to the three moves of the C.A.R.S. model.  However, move two appears to precede the actual exploration of previous research.  The relevance of the topic under research is clearly outlined in the first paragraph of the introduction section, which is followed by a reference to deficiencies of previous research studies in the field (paragraph two).  Not until the development of paragraphs three, four and five is reference to previous literature made.  The purpose of the study is briefly stated in the last paragraph of the introduction section.

Structural and organizational considerations

Although the number of paragraphs and the content in the different paragraphs vary, both articles follow the same organizational G-P pattern.  As regards tenses, the article on education uses in the first move Present Simple and Perfect, in the second move Present Simple and in the third move Present Simple.  For the article on medicine, the tenses used are Present simple and Perfect for the first move, Present Perfect for the second move and Past Simple for the third move.  Finally, a slight difference might be mentioned for the comparison.  While the former article displays a descriptive move three, the later reveals a purposive/ descriptive move.  None of the articles presents the literary review as a separate section.  Nevertheless, while Gimbel, Lopes and Nolan Greer’s (2011) paper introduces it in move one, Smith Anderson-Bill (2011) chooses to present it once the niche has been established.  In the former research paper, the authors use mainly in-text citation while in the latter, the author uses statistics from previous researches.

Componential analysis of method sections

Regarding method sections in the research articles under study, a number of similarities can be highlighted.  Firstly, both papers expose process paragraphs which “keep the language simple and repeat key directions” (Canavan, J.P., 1979; as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.22).  In both sections, a detailed account of what has been done is orderly presented and chronologically arranged.  By the same token, none of the research articles differentiate participants, material and procedure with corresponding subsections.  And, even though in the medicine article the method section is much more exhaustively described, both present the three elements.  One final parallelism to observe involves the recurrent use of past passive voice tenses in the sections analyzed.  A slight difference between the two articles is the complexity of the methods used.  While in the education paper a 20-question questionnaire was employed, the medicine study made use of frequency questionnaires online and participants’ observation.

Conclusion  

A lightweight reflection on research articles belonging to different academic fields may yield a number of superficial differences.  However, when committing into deep structural analysis, the specific academic requirements ruling the production of research papers become apparent.  The large similarities between both articles and the slight differences mentioned in this comparative study reveal that the unfolding of genres are heavily canonical at a deep level and becoming aware of them is a matter of analysis.

References

Canavan, J.P. (1979). Paragraphs and themes. Lexington, MA: D.C. Health and Company.

Gimbel, P. A., Lopes, L., & Nolan Greer, E. (2011). Perceptions of the role of the school principal in teacher professional growth. Journal of Scholarship and Practice, 7 (4). Retrieved May 2011, from http://www.aasa.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/Newsletters/JSP_Winter2011.FINAL.pdf

Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 2: The research article: Introduction, literature review and method sections. Retrieved April 2011, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=8517

Smith Anderson-Bill, E. (2011). Social cognitive determinants of nutrition and physical activity among web-health users enrolling in an online intervention: The influence of social support, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation. Journal of Medical Internet Research, volume 13. DOI: 10.2196/jmir.1551 http://www.jmir.org/2011/1/e28/

Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Blending sections: When sections blend for a specific purpose

Blending sections: When sections blend for a specific purpose

When the concept of genre comes to discussion, Swales (1990) argues that it is theoretically understood as “a disreputable formulaic way of constructing (…) particular texts” (p.33).  However, when practical analysis of genres is carried out by the inspection of sample texts, the idea of mechanical structural construction seems to hold little, if any, validity.  Swales (1990) also states that “communicative purpose has been nominated as the privileged property of a genre.  Other properties, such as form, structure and audience expectations, operate to identify the extent to which an exemplar is prototypical of a particular genre” (p. 52).  This theoretical stance can be illustrated by the structural comparative analysis of two research articles, one in the field of medicine and the other in the field of education.  A special concern of this analysis involves the presupposition that different sections in the research genre are not canonically organized or discretely presented.  On the contrary, they can blend according to the communicative purpose that the author aims at.  For this particular study, the result, discussion, conclusion and recommendation sections will be analyzed in an attempt to evidence that even when sections in a text are organized differently, they may have the same purpose.

 The results section is characterized by the objective presentation of the resultants of the research carried out.  According to Mackey and Gass (2009), “[r]esults sections usually provide objective descriptions without interpretation” (p. 12).  However, considerations pertaining the presentation of the collected data appear to be ultimately determined by the author himself.  The function of the results section is to reveal the outcomes that will either support or refute the original hypothesis of the research.  As stated by Swales (1990), the collected data of the research should not be used directly; it should be processed to make the paper feasible to read.  In order to summarize the obtained information, the research article writer presents some generalizations further developed by tables, and/or charts. 

In their research paper Gimbel, Lopes and Nolan Greer (2011) appear to merge the results and discussion sections in order to present and examine the gathered data simultaneously.  Such section displays the pattern generalization + table + evaluation with resort to past tenses for results' outlining and present tenses for meaning interpretation.  Results thus depicted seem to comply with the requirements of the field.  Of utmost significance is the observable coherence between the process-like specification of data collection in the methodology section and the descriptive character of the results/discussion section.  However, when it comes to analyzing the use of tables to display information, reading and data interpretation are somewhat obscured. The use of bar charts could have been more suitable to establish comparisons.  Besides, most tables show some duplication of the information, which renders them redundant.  The sections could be described as unbalanced due to the fact that the amount of information presented seems to outweigh the depth of the discussion. 

 Different is the example provided by Smith Anderson-Bill's (2011) research paper where the results section is presented in isolation with significant discussion percolating throughout.  Smith Anderson-Bill (2011) begins her results section by referring to the enrolled participants eligible to be engaged in the study.  In this sense, the Purdue Online Writing Lab (2010) states that “[s]ometimes it is necessary to provide a preliminary discussion (…) about your participant groups.  In order to convince your readers that your results are meaningful, you must first demonstrate that the conditions of the study were met” (para. 9).  In her article, Smith Anderson-Bill (2011) uses a table and figures to complement the information previously introduced in a more effective way.  However, unlike Gimbel, Lopes and Nolan Greer’s (2011) paper, the medical study does not seem to comply with the American Psychological Association’s (2007) basic formatting rules.  Even though most titles succeed in describing the table and figure contents, they are neither located flush left nor in italics or in heading caps.  By the same token, Smith Anderson-Bill’s (2011) article fails to present tables and figures on separate pages.

Regarding the last sections of the articles under study, Gimbel, Lopes and Nolan Greer (2011) present an implications section which appears to fulfill the function of the conclusion section as it refers back to the hypothesis presented in the introduction.  There is also a comparative reference of the obtained results with the information of the reviewed literature.  The implications section is followed by a recommendations section which states possible solutions to the problem analyzed throughout the paper and might exert a persuasive effect on the reader.  Conversely, Smith Anderson-Bill (2011) introduces a discussion section whose function seems to be fulfilled up to a certain extent.  While certain elements - namely data interpretation and comments of previous research in the field - are overtly expressed, the ultimate statement of a conclusion that would tie the paper together is altogether absent from the article.  It is precisely this flaw that leaves the reader with an uncomfortable feeling of incompleteness.

Based on the aforementioned analysis, one can conclude that canonical conventions, significant as they may be, are not always decisive in the regular proceedings of the trained scholar.  The communicative purpose of the specialized study appears to set the conditions under which the written genre will unfold.  Different purposes will need to comply with certain pre-established forms, leading the author to make informed choices as to the selection of a specific macro-structure.  Likewise, the audience's particular expectations should at no point be overlooked.  The present comparative description intended to support the assumption that, even though authors can approach result, discussion and conclusion sections from different angles arranging them in different ways, there are basic criteria that should not be disregarded.  Not only should summarized data be conveniently presented and clearly interpreted, conclusions and/or recommendations for future actions should be provided as well.  Only when these aspects have been considered will the research paper achieve its final outcome.

References

Gimbel, P. A., Lopes, L., & Nolan Greer, E. (2011). Perceptions of the role of the school principal in teacher professional growth. Journal of Scholarship and Practice, 7(4). Retrieved from http://www.aasa.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/Newsletters/.FINAL.pdf

Mackey, A., & Gass, S. (2009). Language research: Methodology and design. New Jersey, USA: Routledge.

Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL). (2010). Writing the experimental report: Methods, results and discussion. Retrieved January 17, 2012 from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/670/04/

Smith Anderson-Bill, E. (2011). Social cognitive determinants of nutrition and physical activity among web-health users enrolling in an online intervention: The influence of social support, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation. Journal of Medical Internet Research 13. doi: 10.2196/jmir.1551 http://www.jmir.org/2011/1/e28/

Swales, J. (1990). Chapter 3: The concept of genre. Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. London, UK: Cambridge Applied Linguistics.

Research article abstracts: Complying with the specifics of the field

Research article abstracts: Complying with the specifics of the field

Research article abstracts may be defined as succinct but comprehensive accounts of a much more intricate and longer text. In this respect, Winkler and McCuen-Metherell (2008) pronounce an abstract to be "a summary of the major ideas contained in [a] research paper" (p.119). Varied though their structures may be, most abstracts assume a vital importance at the time of enticing potential readers to explore the contents of a specific study. Accordingly, these substantial paratext elements of the academic discourse emerge as "more important for the reader than for the writer" (Swales & Feak, 1994, p.210). Indeed, given its relevance for the genre and considering that the ultimate makeup of an abstract will largely be determined by the requirements of its area of study, the present paper intends to develop a componential analysis of four abstracts in the fields of medicine and education.

Considering that general-particular analysis of papers constitutes a most valuable process of deductive examination, the four abstracts will be studied in terms of general classifications.  Swales and Feak (1994) present a distinction between abstracts which are written as a map for a research paper (RP) and those that are designed as texts for conferences.  Additionally, the differentiation is deepened by contrasting informative abstracts against indicative ones.  Not only do these types of abstracts display different structures and design features but they are characteristically used in dissimilar contexts. While the former mostly pervades research papers, the latter can be frequently detected in conferences.

In line with this, it can be stated that Jørgensen, Zahl and Gøtzsche (2010), and Martinez, Assimes, Mines, Dell’Aniello and Suissa (2010) expose informative abstracts as summaries of their research.  The reader appears to be guided along the sections of the RP.  It is for such reason that a large amount of information is included by means of a brief but clear description of what the researchers have done.   In terms of design structure, the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ITCMJ) (2009) state that

[t]he abstract should provide the context or background for the study and should state the study’s purpose, basic procedures (selection of study subjects or laboratory animals, observational and analytical methods), main findings (giving specific effect sizes and their statistical significance, if possible), principal conclusions, and funding sources. (para.1)

Careful examination of Martinez’s et al. (2010) and Jørgensen’s et al. (2010) paper allows for the interpretation of a full subordination to the requirements of the scientific field.  Contrastively, King (2002) and Kokonis’ (1993) abstracts can be defined as exponents of argumentative texts in that they intend “to convince the audience that [their] claim is true based on the evidence [to be] provided” (The Purdue Online Writing Lab, 2010, para.1).  In this sense, the texts in question assume characteristics of indicative abstracts by summarizing information from the body of the research article without providing specific results.

Structural analysis is essential when studying abstracts as a genre.  Swales and Feak (1994) and Swales (1990) state that, depending on whether the abstract displays a number of headings or is presented as a single text, they can be classified as structured or unstructured in nature.   Jørgensen et al. (2010) and Martinez’ et al. (2010) abstracts reveal a clear structural division.  Both texts share the following bolded headings: objective, design, setting, participants, results and conclusion.  It is worth noticing that the former also includes a main outcome measure section.  A different pattern is exposed in King (2002) and Kokonis’ (1993) summaries which are organized in a long single paragraph without headings.  A comparative analysis may result in the conclusion that the flexibility allowed by unstructured organizations makes the distribution of information within the paragraphs vary from one text to the other.  While Kokoni (1993) introduces the objective of the paper at the beginning of the paragraph, King (2002) presents the purpose of her study in the last sentence of the abstract.

In order to maximise the analysis of abstracts, linguistic characteristics can be approached.  Graetz (1985) details a number of grammatical aspects permeating the abstract writing process.  Such linguistic features include “the use of full sentences, the use of past tenses, the use of impersonal passive, the absence of negatives and the avoidance of abbreviation, jargon, symbols and language shortcuts that might lead to confusion” (as cited in Swales & Feak, 1994, p.212).  The education abstracts under analysis present single paragraphs characterized by complete sentences and the non-use of negative constructions.  Likewise, neither King (2002) nor Kokonis (1993) introduce abbreviations or jargon in their texts.  Nevertheless, a couple of differences may be pinpointed.  While in King’s (2002) paragraph the use of personal active sentences prevails, Kokonis (1993) exhibits a few instances of impersonal constructions.  A further difference may lie in the length of the texts.  The American Psychological Association (APA) (2008) enounces that research article abstracts should not contain more than two hundred words.  In this respect, while King (2002) presents a 116-word text, Kokonis (1993) appears to exeed the limit established failing to comply with APA (2008) specifications.

Since Jørgensen et al. (2010) and Martinez’s et al. (2010) texts have only a few linguistic elements in common, differences emerge as worth remarking.  Both Jørgensen et al. (2010) and Martinez et al. (2010) introduce objectives through an infinitive clause, and none of the abstracts contain abbreviations or jargon.  Both setting sections are characterized by full sentences with past tense use, and the result sections are similarly formed by a number of full sentences with mostly impersonal constructions.  However, while Jørgensen et al. (2010) use only impersonal constructions, Martinez et al. (2010) use an active personal sentence introduced by the plural pronoun we.  The design section also presents differences.  Jørgensen et al. (2010) introduce a two-full-sentence paragraph, an active sentence followed by a passive one.  Different is the case of the design section in Martinez’s et al. (2010) text which exposes a single noun phrase paragraph.  As regards the participants’ section, Jørgensen et al. (2010) make use of a single impersonal sentence paragraph, while Martinez et al. (2010) combine three full sentences revealing active and passive structures.   Different from what Swales (1990) and Swales and Feak (1994) state, conclusions in both abstracts were written with past tenses.

In regard to the approach to abstract writing, Swales and Feak (1994) distinguish results-driven abstracts from RP summaries.  In their abstracts, Jørgensen et al. (2010) and Martinez et al. (2010) appear to present the main ideas to be later discussed along the paper, the evidence to support their ideas and the reasons to put those ideas into discussion.  Both texts constitute examples of results-driven abstracts, because they present findings from researches with the aim of drawing final conclusions from them.  As for King (2002) and Kokonis’ (1993) texts, since main ideas, the evidence to support them and the reasons for their discussion do not seem to be easily detectable, they can be said to assume the character of sketches or plans which present ideas for future action in education.

The aforementioned analysis supports the premise that disciplinary conventions as well as audiences establish crucial restrictions when writing a text of a specific genre.  Abstracts appear to evidence that they are written not for the benefit of the writer, but for that of the reader.  These texts are brief but rich due to the fact that they compress large amounts of information to serve as maps for the reader.  Such short length turns them into lexically dense and grammatically intricate pieces.  After having analysed the four abstracts in terms of classification, structure, linguistic characteristics, and approach to writing, deep contrasting differences between educational and medical RP could be found.  This may constitute evidence enough to state that field requirements for the writing of a same genre determine the different characteristics formerly mentioned.  While the scientific field of medicine demands clearly structured and labelled abstracts, the social field of education allows more flexibility at the moment of structuring and writing the texts.

References

American Psychological Association. (2008). Publication manual (5^th ed.). Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

Hubbuch, S. M. (1996). Writing research papers across the curriculum. (4^th ed.). Harcourt Brace: Fort Worth, TX.

Jørgensen, K., Zahl, P., & Gøtzsche, P. (2010). Breast cancer mortality in organised mammography screening in Denmark: Comparative study. MBJ Journals. Retrieved May 28^th, 2011, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2844939/ doi: 10.1136/bmj.c1241

King, J. (2002). Using DVD feature films in the EFL classroom. ELT Newsletter, art. 88. Retrieved May 28^th, 2011, from http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/February2002/art882002.htm

Kokonis, M. (1993). The Video in the Classroom: Agatha Christie's "Evil Under the Sun" and the teaching of narratology through film. Retrieved May 28^th, 2011, from

http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED393427.pdf

Martinez, C., Assimes, T., Mines, D., Dell’Aniello, S., & Suissa, S. (2010). Use of venlafaxine compared with other antidepressants and the risk of sudden cardiac death or near death: A nested case-control study. MBJ Journals. Retrieved May 28^th, 2011, from

http://www.bmj.com/content/340/bmj.c249.short / doi: 10.1136/bmj.c249

Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL). (2010). Tips and examples for writing thesis statements. Retrieved June 11^th, 2011, from

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/545/01/

Swales, J.M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Winkler, A., & McCuen-Metherell, J. (2008). Writing the research paper: A handbook. (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Personal choices in text construction

Personal choices in text construction

The notion of genre might be associated with “a disreputable formulaic way of constructing (…) particular texts” (Swales, 1990, p.33).  This conception characterizes the design of research articles as a mechanical process of application of a prescribed set of rules.  However, analysis of a number of samples in varied study fields appears to support the concept that text-construction is a matter of choice.  For the present study, Lindón Villoria’s (1998) research paper will be analyzed as an attempt to enlighten the idea that the communicative purpose of a given text will ultimately determine its structure.

Considering Lindón Villoria’s (1998)  objective – namely “ reflexion[ar sobre el] carácter metodológico respecto a la investigación social” (para. 1) – the present study may be characterized as an analytical paper since it approaches different aspects of the topic to answer a research inquiry (Rubin, R., Rubin, A., Haridakis, & Piele, 2009).  Specifically, the plan of action chosen to carry out research in the present study can be considered to be non-experimental.  In this sense, Lindón Villoria (1998) seems to identify a phenomenon by means of observation and then to isolate it for study.  The variables utilized do not appear to be manipulated. Instead, they are examined as they exist.  According to McMillan (2007), this design can assume the character of descriptive since it specifies current features of the phenomenon.

Lindón Villoria (1998) presents an abstract, without being named as such, which maybe included within the category of general-specific (G-S) texts.  Developing from a general descriptive statement, the abstract proceeds to mention a number of specific details – the structure of the paper.  The text under analysis, structured on the basis of six sentences, meets Swales and Feak’s (1994) consideration that abstracts “consist of a single paragraph containing from about four to ten full sentences” (p. 210).  Another type of text (cause-effect) can be detected in paragraph seven.  In this case, the effect (reaching decisions) emerges as more important than the cause.  This is supported by the fact that the effect is renamed with renewed strength at the end of the paragraph.

So far as paper structure is concerned, the introduction, literature review, methods, or results sections cannot be spotted as clear-cut sections of the paper.  The conclusion section, even though present, is introduced by a signaling phrase - ¿Qué podemos concluir…?- which can be characterized as straightforward rendering the text unrefined.  Conversely, the conclusion seems to comply with the requirements of the genre by constituting a persuasive paragraph where Lindón Villoria (1998) tries to convince the reader that her [his] view on [the] issue is the better view” (Pryle, 2007, p.34).  Likewise, the use of the modals will and should in the conclusion section appear to signal both possibility and advice.

From the aforementioned analysis, it is possible to state that canonical conventions may not always be followed by writers.  It is possible to claim that it is the overt or implicit purpose of the study that will eventually determine the proceedings of the genre.  This purpose, together with considerations as to the audience’s expectations will be decisive in leading an author to select the paper structure that best suits his/her intentions.

                                                              References

Lindón Villoria, A. (1998). De la investigación en ciencias sociales, de la “tesis” y la metodología de la investigación. . El Colegio Mexiquense, A.C. , 15, 1-. Retrieved May 14 2011 from

www.cmq.edu.mx/component/docman/doc.../141-di0150111.html

McMillan, J. (2007). Educational Research: Fundamentals for the consumer.  (5^th ed.). Allyn & Bacon, Inc.: MA.

Pryle, M. (2007). Teaching students to write effective essays: Meaningful step-by-step lessons that get students ready for writing assessments. Boston, USA: Scholastic.

Rubin, R., Rubin, A., Haridakis, P., & Piele, L. (2009). Communication research: Strategies and sources (7^th ed.). Boston, USA: Cengage Learning.

Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. London, UK: Cambridge Applied Linguistics.

 Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.



A book critique

A book critique on Linguistics

Widdowson (1996) defines his innovative work: Linguistics as “a succinct but lucid outline of the ways in which language has been defined, described and explored” (p.1). Indeed, this remarkable study stirs a sense of accomplishment by easing the reader into the daunting task of understanding complex ideas and intricate concepts. The reader is provided with academic initiation into a discipline that has always been approached by prolific and technical literature, appropriately so, given its purpose.

The book is divided into four sections – namely survey, readings, references and glossary – intended to cater for the varied interests of the readership. The survey section provides concise but comprehensive insight into the area of language study. Careful examination of the nature of language and its differentiation from animal communication, its scope and principles of analysis and its areas of enquiry, among other topics, are enlightened by clear explanations and enriching examples. Widdowson’s (1996) meticulous research is accessible to the nonprofessional reader. Under no circumstances, though, should it be considered simplistic since the complex intricacies of the discipline are at no point overlooked.

Especially noteworthy is the attachment of a readings section displaying a compendium of texts that expands the issues discussed in the previous section, allowing the reader to make cross-author connections. The introduction of some questions at the end of each text encourages exploration on specific notions the author aims to draw upon. Equally significant for linguistics students, teachers, and any reader who might be interested in the basic concerns of human language, is the inclusion of a glossary. Terms that appear in bold type in the survey analysis are referenced and clarified in this section.

All things considered, Widdowson (1996) thrives in his attempt to identify relevant concepts in the area of language study by putting forward brief expositions without confronting the essentially academic tone of his research. Specialized readers and teachers will inevitably profit from this insightful scrutiny. For the inexperienced student, however, Widdowson’s (1996) book would have been more convincing if the author had accompanied his survey explanations with inquiring exercises fostering reflection and furthering personal exploration. Had this been successfully accomplished, the resulting product would have been not only exceptionally practical but also irrefutable.

References

Widdowson, H. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Basic concepts in EAP

An insight into academic terminology

A discourse community, understood as an assembly of participants joined by the pursuit of a common purpose and sharing a proficient command of language conventions, constitutes the best setting for the development of academic writing. In this sense, Swales (1990) states that

A discourse community is composed of a minimum number of expert members and a frequently larger number of apprentice members who operate on the basis of implicit and explicit public goals. (…) Their members develop and use systems of speech and writing that are sometimes quite specific to a particular community’s needs and goals. We often find participatory mechanisms used by community members to transmit information and feedback.

(as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.12)

Bizzell (1992) defines a discourse community as being “bound together primarily by its uses of language” (as cited in Kelly-Kleese, 2004, p.1). This notion is further illustrated by Kelly-Kleese’s (2004) assertion that members of a discourse community share an ability to transmit information and accomplish common goals by displaying “a flow of discourse that has a particular structure and style” (p.1). As it can be seen, expert command of linguistic academic conventions – especially in writing – underpins the prosperity of any discourse community.

In this respect, Pintos and Crimi (2010) put forward a series of competence requirements that define academic writers - namely “proficiency in language use, style, register, and genre(s)” (p.9). They label these requirements as “awkward” since writing academically and critically certainly involves complex cognitive processes. They further state that the manipulation of appealing reading materials, together with the creation of appropriate contexts of interaction aimed at fostering thought construction rather than thought translation, are of utmost importance in seeking to enter a “discourse community of (. . .) teachers and (. . .) researchers” (p.10).  

Far from delving into the concepts mentioned above, both formal instruction in academic writing and knowledge of how a discourse community operates are altogether absent from Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) College syllabi. Turning to personal experience, I can claim that clear insight into these fields would have resulted in the awakening of curiosity as regards involvement in a study group and would have promoted my critical thinking abilities. Through the former, I would have been able to experience the collaboration and views exchange lying at the core of discourse community practices. Through the latter, I would have had the opportunity to indulge in “composing for knowledge transforming” (Grabe & Kaplan; as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.10).

References

Bizell, P. (1992). Academic discourse and critical consciousness. Pittsburg, PA: University of Pittsburg Press.

Grabe, W., & Kaplan, R. (1996). Theory and practice of writing. Essex, UK: Addison Wesley/Longman.

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s choice: An open memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2010, from

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_29/ai_77481463

Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Retrieved September 2010, from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=6856

Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 3: Academic writing. Retrieved October 2010 from

http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/,od/resource/view.php?id=7392

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Critical incident

Building up self-confidence in the learning process

It was February 2004 when the principal of the language school where I had been working for a year, summoned a beginning-of-year meeting. After outlining some general goals to be achieved that year, the headmistress mentioned the urgent need to strengthen and further develop students’ writing skills, especially at intermediate and upper-intermediate levels. The results of students’ written productions in the final exam of their preceding course of studies, had revealed serious gaps that demanded immediate action. Several students had had to re-take their exams because their pieces of writing were below standard. I was going to teach an eight-student upper-intermediate class that year and we were going to have lessons on Mondays from 5.30 to 7.00 in the afternoon.

When studying at Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) College, I had read about the use of journal writing as a technique by which students could express their feelings and thoughts without constraints and, as its entries were not always meant to be corrected, students could overcome their fears and use writing as a means of true-to-life communication. Therefore, I decided that the implementation of journals in the course might prove to be a priceless starting point from which to immerse students into the world of meaningful writing.

The first objective I set in this process was students’ recognition of their diaries as actually belonging to them, not to the teacher or to the language course. So I asked them to give each notebook a personal touch that would make them different from the rest. Great was my surprise when the following week students enthusiastically came up to me with their journals ornamented with personal pictures of friends and family; some students had even decided to give their journals a name!

I understood that at this point I had to diagnose problems and difficulties. This is why, as an opening entry, I asked students to write me a letter, which I was going to answer back, describing how they felt about writing. I wrote down some questions on the board to be used as a guide. What do you like/dislike the most about writing? How do you feel when you have to write something? What is your experience as regards writing in Spanish? are examples of this.

An analysis of students’ comments revealed that their main difficulties lay in not having enough ideas to express – phrases such as “I have no imagination” or “I never know what to write” being most frequent – and in not knowing how to organize their productions. Hopefully, the latter difficulty would be dealt with in class since the textbook we would use did teach how to write a report, an article or a letter of complaint. What I really needed to supplement, though, was the what to write stage of the process. And again, I found the solution in journal writing. However, this was no bed of roses. Students still complained extensively when asked to write. So I had to implement different strategies to motivate them and make them enjoy what they were doing. I used story-telling a lot and then asked them how the story would have been different if . . . Or I made them choose a character and write the story from his/her perspective. I sometimes used different mood musical extracts to foster creative writing on the basis of a given sentence.

Little by little, students started to achieve better results in productions and, in subsequent open letters I asked them to address to me, mentioned how their self-confidence and taste for writing had increased. Their final written performance that year improved substantially and they did very well in the final exam. But I also grew, I became a different teacher. I learnt that building up self-esteem and self-confidence is sometimes the only skill students need to become successful users of the language.